tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-24212984994023132522024-03-12T19:06:46.009-07:00Firma Yova P. LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.comBlogger10125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-66714818901587542362013-06-21T07:50:00.001-07:002013-06-21T07:50:27.297-07:00photoshopBerikut adalah contoh editan photoshop untuk mengunduh klik <a href="http://www.4shared.com/photo/7Q-svQSU/yopa_di_london.html">disini</a><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DrOsOTjor-c/UcRnxqU-HHI/AAAAAAAAADk/si2CmRuFTpM/s1600/yopa+di+london.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DrOsOTjor-c/UcRnxqU-HHI/AAAAAAAAADk/si2CmRuFTpM/s320/yopa+di+london.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-59134195637174673752013-06-20T20:12:00.004-07:002013-06-20T20:12:53.790-07:00POSTERBerikut adalah contoh poster untuk mengunduh klik <a href="http://www.4shared.com/photo/69YOu7z-/firma_yova_a10208027.html">disini</a><br />
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<br />LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-22575147439997673292013-06-19T06:37:00.000-07:002013-06-19T06:37:09.340-07:00GANGGUAN METABOLISME HORMON<!--[if !mso]>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Firma Yova Perdanawati</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A.102.08.027</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENYAKIT GRAVE</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>I.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DEFINISI</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Penyakit
Graves (goiter difusa toksika) merupakan penyebab tersering hipertiroidisme
adalah suatu penyakit autonium yang biasanya ditandai oleh produksi autoantibodi
yang memiliki kerja mirip TSH pada kelenjar tiroid. Penderita penyakit Graves
memiliki gejala-gejala khas dari hipertiroidisme dan gejala tambahan khusus
yaitu pembesaran kelenjar tiroid/struma difus, oftamopati (eksoftalmus/ mata
menonjol) dan kadang-kadang dengan dermopati.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>II.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ETIOLOGI</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Penyakit
Graves merupakan salah satu penyakit otoimun, dimana penyebabnya sampai
sekarang belum diketahui dengan pasti. Penyakit ini mempunyai predisposisi
genetik yang kuat, dimana 15% penderita mempunyai hubungan keluarga yang erat
dengan penderita penyakit yang sama. Sekitar 50% dari keluarga penderita
penyakit Graves, ditemukan autoantibodi tiroid didalam darahnya. Penyakit ini
ditemukan 5 kali lebih banyak pada wanita dibandingkan pria, dan dapat terjadi
pada semua umur. Angka kejadian tertinggi terjadi pada usia antara 20 tahun
sampai 40 tahun.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span> </span></span>III.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PATOGENESIS</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
penyakit Graves, limfosit T mengalami perangsangan terhadap antigen yang berada
didalam kelenjar tiroid yang selanjutnya akan merangsang limfosit B untuk
mensintesis antibodi terhadap antigen tersebut. Antibodi yang disintesis akan
bereaksi dengan reseptor TSH didalam membran sel tiroid sehingga akan
merangsang pertumbuhan dan fungsi sel tiroid, dikenal dengan TSH-R antibody.
Adanya antibodi didalam sirkulasi darah mempunyai korelasi yang erat dengan
aktivitas dan kekambuhan penyakit. Mekanisme otoimunitas merupakan faktor
penting dalam patogenesis terjadinya hipertiroidisme, oftalmopati, dan
dermopati pada penyakit Graves. <br />
Sampai saat ini dikenal ada 3 otoantigen utama terhadap kelenjar tiroid yaitu
tiroglobulin (Tg), thyroidal peroxidase (TPO) dan reseptor TSH (TSH-R).
Disamping itu terdapat pula suatu protein dengan BM 64 kiloDalton pada
permukaan membran sel tiroid dan sel-sel orbita yang diduga berperan dalam
proses terjadinya perubahan kandungan orbita dan kelenjar tiroid penderita
penyakit Graves.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span> </span></span>IV.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">GEJALA KLINIS</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
penyakit graves terdapat dua kelompok gambaran utama yaitu tiroidal dan
ekstratiroidal yang keduanya mungkin tidak tampak. Ciri-ciri tiroidal berupa
goiter akibat hiperplasia kelenjar tiroid dan hipertiroidisme akibat sekresi
hormon tiroid yang berlebihan. Gejala-gejala hipertiroidisme berupa manifestasi
hipermetabolisme dan aktifitas simpatis yang berlebihan. Pasien mengeluh lelah,
gemetar, tidak tahan panas, keringat semakin banyak bila panas, kulit lembab,
berat badan menurun walaupun nafsu makan meningkat, palpitasi, takikardi, diare
dan kelemahan srta atrofi otot. Manifestasi ekstratiroidal berupa oftalmopati
dan infiltrasi kulit lokal yang biasanya terbatas pada tungkai bawah.
Oftalmopati yang ditemukan pada 50% sampai 80% pasien ditandai dengan mata
melotot, fissura palpebra melebar, kedipan berkurang, lid lag (keterlambatan
kelopak mata dalam mengikuti gerakan mata) dan kegagalan konvergensi. Gambaran
klinik klasik dari penyakit graves antara lain adalah tri tunggal
hipertitoidisme, goiter, difus dan eksotalamus.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gejala dan tanda :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hanya ada tanda tanpa gejala (berupa
upper lid retraction, stare, lid lag)<br />
<br />
</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>V.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PEMERIKSAAN LABORATORIUM</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Autoantibodi tiroid , TgAb dan TPO
Ab dapat dijumpai baik pada penyakit Graves maupun tiroiditis Hashimoto, namun
TSH-R Ab (stim) lebih spesifik pada penyakit Graves. Pemeriksaan ini berguna
pada pasien dalam keadaan apathetic hyperthyroid atau pada eksoftamos
unilateral tanpa tanda-tanda klinis dan laboratorium yang jelas.<br />
Untuk dapat memahami hasil-hasil laboratorium pada penyakit Graves dan
hipertiroidisme umumnya, perlu mengetahui mekanisme umpan balik pada hubungan
(axis) antara kelenjar hipofisis dan kelenjar tiroid. Dalam keadaan normal,
kadar hormon tiroid perifer, seperti L-tiroksin (T-4) dan tri-iodo-tironin
(T-3) berada dalam keseimbangan dengan thyrotropin stimulating hormone (TSH).
Artinya, bila T-3 dan T-4 rendah, maka produksi TSH akan meningkat dan
sebaliknya ketika kadar hormon tiroid tinggi, maka produksi TSH akan menurun.<br />
Pada penyakit Graves, adanya antibodi terhadap reseptor TSH di membran sel
folikel tiroid, menyebabkan perangsangan produksi hormon tiroid secara terus
menerus, sehingga kadar hormon tiroid menjadi tinggi. Kadar hormon tiroid yang
tinggi ini menekan produksi TSH di kelenjar hipofisis, sehingga kadar TSH
menjadi rendah dan bahkan kadang-kadang tidak terdeteksi. Pemeriksaan TSH
generasi kedua merupakan pemeriksaan penyaring paling sensitif terhadap hipertiroidisme,
oleh karena itu disebut TSH sensitive (TSHs), karena dapat mendeteksi kadar TSH
sampai angka mendekati 0,05mIU/L. Untuk konfirmasi diagnostik, dapat diperiksa
kadar T-4 bebas.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-9IWlw9GQ3bw/UcGxaFI8kgI/AAAAAAAAADE/BUKcBSZOjxk/s1600/p+graves.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="256" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-9IWlw9GQ3bw/UcGxaFI8kgI/AAAAAAAAADE/BUKcBSZOjxk/s320/p+graves.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://physio-pedia.com/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">http://physio-pedia.com</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">SINDROM CUSHING</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>I.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DEFINISI</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sindrom Cushing adalah istilah umum
untuk peningkatan sekresi kortisol oleh korteks adrenal. Ketika kortikosteroid
diberikan secara eksternal, kondisi hypercortisolism disebut sindrom iatrogenik
Cushing terjadi. Bila hasil hypercortisolism dari Oversecretion ACTH dari
hipofisis, kondisi ini disebut penyakit Cushing. Presentasi klinis adalah sama
untuk semua kondisi ini.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>II.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">EPIDEMIOLOGI</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada sindroma Cushing berupa sindroma
ektopik ACTH lebih sering pada laki-laki dengan rasio 3:1, pada insiden
hiperplasia hipofisis adrenal adalah lebih besar pada wanita daripada
laki-laki, kebanyakan muncul pada usia dekade ketiga atau keempat.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>III.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENYEBAB</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sindrom Chusing terjadi karena tubuh
memproduksi terlalu banyak kortisol, hormon yang biasanya dibuat dalam kelenjar
adrenal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>IV.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">GEJALA KLINIS</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tubuh bagian atas obesitas (di atas
pinggang) sedangkan lengan dan kaki kurus</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Wajah bulat, merah, penuh (moon
face)</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tingkat pertumbuhan yang lambat pada
anak-anak</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perubahan kult yang sering terlihat</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jerawat atau infeksi kulit</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Striae pada kulit perut, paha dan
payudara</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kulit tipis dan mudah memar</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perubahan otot dan tulang meliputi :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sakit
punggung yang terjadi dengan kegiatan sehari-hari</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nyeri
tulang</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengumpulan
lemak diantara bahu</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Patah
tulang rusuk dan tulang belakang (yang disebabkan oleh osteoporosis)</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelemahan
otot</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Wanita dengan sindrom Chusing sering memiliki pertumbuhan
rambut yang berlebihan pada wajah, leher, dada, perut dan paha, serta siklus
menstruasi yang tidak teratur atau berhenti.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pria jugamungkin mengalami penurunan hasrat seksual dan
impotensi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gejala lainnya yang mungkin terjadi pada penyakit ini antara
lain perubahan mental (depress, kecemasan, atau perubahan perilaku), kelelahan,
sakit kepala, peningkatan rasa haus dan frekuensi buang air kecil.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>V.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PEMERIKSAAN LABORATORIUM</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Meskipun ada penampilan cushingoid
klasik pada orang dengan hypercortisolism dan diagnosis biasanya dicurigai
berdasarkan gejala dan tanda-tanda karakteristik, studi laboratorium
diagnostik, termasuk tes hormonal dan pencitraan, yang digunakan untuk
mengkonfirmasi diagnosis.Juga, meninjau sejarah menerima kosteroidpenting. <br />
Di beberapa pusat, pengujian dimulai dengan pengukuran :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 93pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Saluran
kencing gratis cortisol (UFC), uji terbaik untuk ekskresi urin. UFC
terangkat> 120 μg/24h (> 331 nmol/24h) di hampir semua pasien dengan
sindrom Cushing. Namun, banyak pasien dengan UFC ketinggian antara 100 dan 150
μg/24h (276 dan 414 nmol/24h) memiliki obesitas, depresi, atau ovarium
polikistik tetapi tidak sindrom Cushing. Seorang pasien dengan sindrom Cushing
dicurigai dengan terlalu tinggi UFC (> 4 kali batas atas normal) hampir
pasti memiliki sindrom Cushing. Dua sampai tiga koleksi yang normal hampir
mengecualikan diagnosis. Tingkat sedikit lebih tinggi umumnya memerlukan
penyelidikan lebih lanjut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 93pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika
tes laboratorium awal yang positif (tinggi tingkat cortisol), maka dilakukan
tes penekanan deksametason dapat dilakukan untuk menentukan penyebabnya</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 93pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Serum
ACTH membantu menentukan apakah Sindrom Cushing adalah ACTH-dependent (tumor
hipofisis) atau (tumor adrenal) ACTH-independen. Tingkat tidak terdeteksi, baik
basally dan khususnya dalam menanggapi corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH),
menyarankan adrenal primer menyebabkan. Tingkat tinggi menunjukkan penyebab
hipofisis. Jika ACTH terdeteksi (sindrom ACTH tergantung Cushing),</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 93pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tes
provokatif membantu membedakan penyakit Cushing dari sindrom ACTH ektopik, yang
jarang</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 93pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">X-ray
atau DEXA scan mungkin diperlukan untuk menilai fraktur atau untuk
menyingkirkan osteopenia atau osteoporosis, masing-masing. Tes ini dapat
dilakukan untuk mendapatkan dasar pengukuran kepadatan tulang atau mereka dapat
diperoleh dalam menanggapi laporan individu gejala muskuloskeletal seperti
nyeri tulang atau sakit punggung</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 93pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
anak-anak dengan penyakit Cushing, tumor hipofisis sangat kecil dan biasanya
tidak dapat dideteksi dengan MRI. Sampling sinus petrosus sangat berguna dalam
situasi ini. MRI lebih disukai untuk CT pada wanita hamil untuk menghindari
paparan janin untuk radiasi</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pemeriksaan laboratorium mungkin
menunjukkan gula darah dan jumlah sel darah putih yang tinggi, kadar potassium
mungkin rendah. Peningkatan kolesterol dan trigliserida, serta penurunan HDL
juga sering ditemukan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pemeriksaan penunjang yang sering
dilakukan untuk mendiagnosis sindrom Chusing dan mengidentifikasi penyebabnya
adalah :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kadar kolesterol serum</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kadar kolesterol saliva</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dexamethasone suppression test</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Urine 24 jam untuk kortisol dan
kreatinin</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kadar ACTH</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Uji stimulasi ACTH</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">CT scan abdomen</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">MRI hipofisis</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kepadatan tulang yang diukur dengan
dual x-rzy zbsorptiometry (DEXA)</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-QGaXZ0boE5A/UcGxKS-S0CI/AAAAAAAAAC8/J1TyHQX8aOc/s1600/sindrom+chusing.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-QGaXZ0boE5A/UcGxKS-S0CI/AAAAAAAAAC8/J1TyHQX8aOc/s320/sindrom+chusing.jpg" width="240" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR
PUSTAKA</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Arif
Mansjoer, Suphohaita dan Wahyu Ika Wardhani, 2000, <i>Kapita Selekta Kedokteran</i>,
Edisi Ketiga Jilid Kedua</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Guyton & Hall. 2006. <i>Medical
Physiology Eleventh Edition</i>. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Price, Sylvia
A, Wilson, Lorraine M. 2006. <i>Patofisiologi 2</i>. Jakarta : EGC.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Robbins, Cotran, Kumar. 1996. Dasar Patologi Penyakit.
Jakarta: EGC.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Sudoyo, Aru W, dkk (editor). 2006. <i>Ilmu
Penyakit Dalam Jilid III Edisi IV. </i>Jakarta : Departemen Ilmu Penyakit Dalam
FK UI.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">PubMed ( <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed</span></a> ) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Society for Endocrinology ( <a href="http://www.endocrinology.org/" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.endocrinology.org/</span></a>
) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">National Library of Medicine AS.
Institut Kesehatan Nasional. NCBI</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span> </span>( </span><a href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">http://www.nlm.nih.gov/</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> )</span></div>
LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-22041267494620818672013-06-17T05:29:00.003-07:002013-06-17T05:29:45.254-07:00POSTER<a href="mailto:perdanayova@gmail.com">perdanayova@gmail.com</a><br />
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<br />LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-61743318190647983952013-06-14T02:20:00.003-07:002013-06-14T02:20:32.753-07:00SINDROM MARFAN<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">SINDROM MARFAN</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Marfan syndrome (MFS) adalah gangguan spektrum yang disebabkan
oleh cacat genetik diwariskan dari jaringan ikat yang memiliki mode dominan
autosomal transmisi cacat itu sendiri telah diisolasi dengan gen FBN1 pada kromosom
15 yang mengkode untuk protein jaringan ikat fibrillin. Kelainan pada protein
ini menyebabkan segudang masalah klinis yang berbeda, dimana masalah sistem
muskuloskeletal, jantung, dan mata mendominasi. Kerangka pasien dengan MFS
biasanya menampilkan cacat multiple termasuk arachnodactyly (yaitu normal
panjang dan angka tipis), dolichostenomelia (yaitu kaki panjang relatif
terhadap panjang batang), kelainan bentuk pectus (yaitu pectus excavatum dan
pectus carinatum), dan scoliosis torakolumbalis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam sistem kardiovaskular dapat terjadi
gangguan dilatasi aorta, regurgitasi aorta, dan aneurisma yang merupakan
gangguan paling mengkhawatirkan. Katup mitral prolaps yang membutuhkan
penggantian katup dapat juga terjadi. Temuan gangguan mata dapat terjadi
termasuk miopia, katarak, ablasi retina, dan dislokasi lensa utama.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kejadian Sindrom Marfan diperkirakan berkisar dari 1 dalam
5.000 sampai 2-3 dalam 10.000 orang. Mutasi pada gen fibrillin menyebabkan efek
pleiotropic. Dengan demikian, berbagai fitur fenotipik yang berasal dari mutasi
gen tunggal. Beberapa penyakit lain memiliki presentasi yang mirip dengan MFS,
sehingga sangat sulit untuk menentukan kejadian tepat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bernard Marfan seorang dokter anak
penemu sindrom ini lahir di Castelnaudary, Aude, Prancis pada 23 Juni 1858.
Pada 1892, ia diangkat sebagai asisten profesor pediatri di fakultas Paris.
Marfan menggambarkan penyakit yang masih menyandang namanya pada pertemuan
Society Kedokteran Paris pada 1896. Ia memaparkan kasus seorang gadis 5 tahun
bernama Gabrielle, yang memiliki anggota badan tidak proporsional panjang.<br />
Dalam studi kemudian, anomali lanjut didokumentasikan, termasuk arachnodactyly
(digit), kelainan kardiovaskular, dan dislokasi dari lensa okular. Sebuah
komplikasi umum dan sering mematikan MFS adalah diseksi aorta, dan warisan
genetik yang sekarang dikenal sebagai autosomal. Marfan memperoleh reputasi
internasional dan secara luas diakui sebagai pelopor kedokteran anak di
Perancis. Ini sangat banyak terjadi di Inggris, juga, di mana dia menerima beasiswa
kehormatan dari Royal Society of Medicine tahun 1934.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Permasalahan Sindrom marfan</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam sindrom Marfan, jaringan ikat
rusak dan tidak bertindak sebagaimana mestinya. Karena jaringan penghubung
ditemukan di seluruh tubuh, sindrom Marfan dapat mempengaruhi banyak sistem
tubuh, termasuk kerangka, mata, jantung dan pembuluh darah, sistem saraf,
kulit, dan paru-paru. Sindrom Marfan mempengaruhi pria, wanita, dan anak-anak,
dan telah ditemukan di antara orang-orang dari semua ras dan latar belakang
etnis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelainan protein jaringan ikat
fibrillin menyebabkan berbagai masalah pada individu yang terkena. Masalah yang
paling parah termasuk dilatasi aorta dan diseksi, yang secara historis menjadi
faktor penyebab kematian pasien di awal. Deformitas skeletal seperti scoliosis
torakolumbalis, lordosis dada, dan excavatum pectus, dapat mengakibatkan
kesulitan paru yang termasuk penyakit saluran napas restriktif dan cor
pulmonale jika cacat yang progresif dan tidak diobati. Akhirnya, kebutaan bisa
terjadi akibat glaukoma yang tidak diakui dan tidak diobati, ablasi retina, dan
katarak.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Penyebab</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada banyak kasus Sindrom Marfan
penyebab tidak diketahui. Sindrom Marfan disebabkan oleh kerusakan (mutasi)
pada gen yang menentukan struktur fibrillin, protein yang merupakan bagian
penting dari jaringan ikat. Mutasi pada lokus FBN1 dari gen pada kromosom 15
fibrillin telah dikaitkan dengan MFS dan lainnya entitas klinis yang berbeda
dengan temuan serupa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Patofisiologi</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Selama bertahun-tahun, beberapa
peneliti telah mempelajari berbagai molekul ditemukan dalam matriks
ekstraseluler dalam upaya untuk menjelaskan penyebab MFS . Molekul-molekul ini
telah termasuk kolagen, elastin, asam hialuronat, dan, baru-baru ini,
fibrillin. Sakai et al diidentifikasi fibrillin, protein 350-kd, dengan
menggunakan antibodi monoklonal yang diajukan terhadap miofibril.
Studi immunofluorescence kemudian digunakan untuk membandingkan
reaktivitas di kedua subyek sehat dan mereka dengan MFS.. Selama periode ini,
teknologi serupa digunakan untuk membangun sebuah peta pengecualian genetik
yang mengarah ke lokalisasi dari cacat pada kromosom 15 (band P15-Q23).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Beberapa mutasi titik kini telah
diidentifikasi pada gen fibrillin, sebagian besar yang mempengaruhi residu
sistein dalam mikrofibril. Jadi, mutasi ini diduga menyebabkan fibrillin cacat
yang dihasilkan. Struktur fibrillin dan fungsi yang diubah oleh protein folding
abnormal akibat perubahan ikatan antara residu sistein, yang pada gilirannya
menyebabkan cacat produksi mikrofibril.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tanda dan Gejala</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gejala dari sindrom ini dapat diketahui dalam jangka lama.
Sindrom ini mempengaruhi kerangka, mata, jantung dan pemubuluh darah, sistem
saraf, kulit, dan paru-paru.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ada tanda tunggal pathognomic untuk MFS, mengingat
expressivity variabelnya. Diagnosis dibuat berdasarkan gejala klinis
berdasarkan kelainan khas. Sistem jantung, rangka, dan okular umumnya lebih
terfokus pada kriteria diagnostik MFS, namun jaringan lain, termasuk otot
rangka, lemak, kulit, fasia, dan saluran pernapasan, mungkin akan terpengaruh dalam
kondisi ini juga. Daftar berikut ini menjelaskan temuan klinis yang paling umum
dan Berlin revisi kriteria (1986) untuk diagnosis MFS. Kriteria Ghent (1996)
memperbarui pedoman sebelumnya untuk memasukkan penekanan lebih besar pada
temuan rangka, serta mereka tentang sejarah keluarga dan genetik. [16, 17]
(Lihat juga artikel eMedicine Sindrom Marfan di bagian Pediatrics untuk lebih
rinci deskripsi kriteria Ghent.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
Rangka Tulang</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk keterlibatan sistem kerangka
untuk digunakan sebagai kriteria untuk diagnosis, minimal 2 kriteria mayor atau
1 kriteria utama ditambah 2 kriteria minor harus ada.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kriteria sistem kerangka adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pectus carinatum</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Excavatum pectus yang membutuhkan
pembedahan</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebuah atas-ke-rendah mengurangi
rasio segmen (yaitu, jarak dari kepala ke simfisis pubis dibagi dengan jarak
simfisis pubis pada sol) kurang dari 0,85</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Lengan meningkat rentang-ke-tinggi
rasio yang lebih besar dari 1,05</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebuah tanda positif pergelangan
tangan (misalnya, ibu jari dan jari telunjuk ketika tumpang tindih melingkari
pergelangan tangan kontralateral.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebuah jempol tanda (Steinberg)
positif (yaitu, ibu jari melampaui perbatasan ulnaris dari tangan ketika angka
tersebut dipegang tertekuk di telapak tangan.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>7.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Scoliosis torakolumbalis lebih dari
20 º atau spondylolisthesis</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>8.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Runtuhnya Progresif hindfoot,
menyebabkan deformitas planovalgus pes</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>9.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">rotrusio acetabuli dari tingkat
apapun (terlihat pada anteroposterior (AP) radiografi panggul)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kriteria Minor sistem kerangka adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pectus excavatum keparahan moderat</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hipermobilitas</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tinggi langit-langit melengkung,
dengan crowding gigi</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Wajah (dolichocephaly, malar
hipoplasia, enophthalmos, retrognathia, turun-miring fisura palpebral</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
Okular</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk keterlibatan okular sistem yang akan digunakan sebagai
kriteria diagnostik, kriteria utama atau minimal 2 kriteria minor harus ada</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem mata kriteria mayor
adalah ectopia lentis (dislokasi lensa) [18].</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kriteria mata minor
adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kornea normal datar</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Panjang aksial peningkatan dunia,
yang diukur dengan US</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Otot iris atau hipoplasia hipoplasia
silia, menyebabkan myopia</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
Kardiovaskular</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk keterlibatan sistem kardiovaskular harus
dipertimbangkan kriteria diagnostik, hanya salah satu kriteria mayor atau minor
harus hadir</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kriteria Mayorvsistem kardiovaskular adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dilatasi aorta asendens, dengan atau
tanpa regurgitasi, dan melibatkan setidaknya sinus dari Valsava</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Diseksi dari aorta asendens</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kriteria Minor sistem kardiovaskular adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Katup mitral prolaps, dengan atau
tanpa regurgitasi</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dilatasi arteri pulmonalis utama
tanpa adanya stenosis pulmonal valvular atau perifer atau penyebab yang jelas
lain pada pasien yang lebih muda dari 40 tahun</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kalsifikasi anulus katup mitral pada
pasien yang lebih muda dari 40 tahun</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dilatasi atau diseksi dari aorta
dada atau perut menurun pada pasien lebih muda dari 50 tahun</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem Paru</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
keterlibatan sistem paru diperhatikan koteria diagnostic, salah satu kriteria
minor harus ada.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kriteria Minor sistem paru adalah
sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Spontan pneumotoraks</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Apikal blebs</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kulit dan Intergumen</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
kulit dan keterlibatan intergumen diperhatikan kriteria diagnostik. Kriteria
utama atau salah satu dari kriteria minor harus ada. Kulit utam dan criteria
intergumen adalah dural lumbosakral ectesia, seperti yang digambarkan oleh
dihitung (CT) scanning tomography atau magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Kulit
kecil dan kriteria intergumen adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Stirae atropicae yang tidak
berhubungan dengan kehamilan atau stress yang berulang</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berulang atau hernia insisional</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-3_mSQtLUvs0/Ubrf0dRl4UI/AAAAAAAAACY/itXpHkhG9nk/s1600/marfan-syndrome-hand-diagnosis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="249" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-3_mSQtLUvs0/Ubrf0dRl4UI/AAAAAAAAACY/itXpHkhG9nk/s320/marfan-syndrome-hand-diagnosis.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>F.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Riwayat
Keluarga</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk sejarah keluarga
dipertimbangkan iuran untuk diagnosis MFS, salah satu criteria utama harus ada.
Kriteria keluarga besar sejarah adalah orang tua, anak, atau saudara yang
memenuhi kriteria diagnostic berikut secara independen :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya mutasi pada FBN1 diketahui
menyebabkan MFS</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya haplotype sekitar FBN1,
diwarisi oleh keturunan yang diketahui terkait dengan MFS tegas di diagnosis
dalam keluarga</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ada criteria keluarga minor
sejarah ada</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>G.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Persyaratan untuk diagnosis MFS</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Indeks
kasus – kriteria utama dalam sedikitnya 2 sistem organ yang berbeda dan
keterlibatan dalam sistem organ ketiga</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Anggota
keluarga – Adanya kriteria utama dalam sejarah keluarga, salah satu kriteria
utama dalam suatu sistem organ, dan keterlibatan sistem organ kedua</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>H.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengobatan</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tak ada obat khusus untuk Sindrom
Marfan. Namun demikian, berbagai pilihan pengobatan dapat meminimalkan dan
kadang-kadang mencegah komplikasi. Spesialis yang sesuai akan
mengembangkan program pengobatan perorangan; pendekatan dokter menggunakan
tergantung pada sistem yang telah terpengaruh.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Referensi:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-65814031139808356462013-06-04T06:21:00.001-07:002013-06-04T06:21:12.156-07:00DENATURASI PROTEIN<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">DENATURASI
PROTEIN</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Denaturasi Protein
adalah proses perubahan struktur lengkap dan karakteristik bentuk protein
akibat dari gangguan interaksi sekunder, tersier, dan kuaterner struktural. Karena
fungsi biokimia protein tergantung pada tiga dimensi bentuknya atau susunan
senyawa yang terdapat pada asam amino. Hasil denaturasi adalah hilangnya
aktivitas biokimia yang terjadi didalam senyawa protein itu sendiri. Denaturasi
protein juga tidak mempengaruhi kandungan struktur utama protein yaitu C, H, O,
dan N. Meskipun beberapa protein mengalami kemungkinan untuk kehilangan
kandungan senyawa mereka karakteristik struktural saat Denaturasi. Namun,
kebanyakan protein tidak akan mengalami hal tersebut, hanya saja tidak menutup
kemungkinan juga protein akan berubah struktur kecil didalamnya saat proses
denaturasi terjadi. Bagaimanapun, untuk perubahan denaturasi secara umum,
prosesnya sama dan tidak dapat diubah. ( Stoker, 2010)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-ciri
suatu protein yang mengalami denaturasi bisa dilihat dari berbagai hal. Salah
satunya adalah dari perubahan struktur fisiknya, protein yang terdenaturasi
biasanya mengalami pembukaan lipatan pada bagian-bagian tertentu. Selain itu,
protein yang terdenaturasi akan berkurang kelarutannya. Lapisan molekul yang
bagian hidrofobik akan mengalami perubahan posisi dari dalam ke luar, begitupun
sebaliknya. Hal ini akan membuat perubahan kelarutan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Protein terdenaturasi dalam susu
pasteurisasi</span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Susu biasanya dipasteurisasi pada
suhu 120<sup>o</sup>C selama 15 detik. Dengan adanya sedikit perubahan pada
protein susu (seperti denaturasi dan pengendapan jarang terjadi) ketika susu
dipasteurisasi pada kondisi tersebut, tidak diperlukan perlakuan khusus.
Protein susu terdiri dari dua protein utama: casein (80%) dan protein whey.
Kasein sangat stabil pada pemanasan, sementara protein whey tidak stabil dengan
adanya panas. Karenanya, protein whey lah yang terdenaturasi ketika susu
dipanaskan selama pasteurisasi. Protein whey terkoagulasi oleh panas dan
membentuk partikel-partikel kecil. Karena jumlah partikel-partikel kecil ini
sangat sedikit, pengendapan jarang terjadi. Peristiwa denaturasi protein whey
mempengaruhi warna putih susu.Susu menjadi lebih putih setelah dipasteurisasi.
Peningkatan warna putih pada susu ini disebabkan adanya perubahan indeks bias
yang disebabkan oleh denaturasi protein whey.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Denaturasi
karena Panas</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Panas dapat digunakan untuk mengacaukan ikatan hidrogen dan interaksi
hidrofobik non polar. Hal ini terjadi karena suhu tinggi dapat meningkatkan
energi kinetik dan menyebabkan molekul penyusun protein bergerak atau bergetar
sangat cepat sehingga mengacaukan ikatan molekul tersebut. Protein telur
mengalami denaturasi dan terkoagulasi selama pemasakan. Beberapa makanan
dimasak untuk mendenaturasi protein yang dikandung supaya memudahkan enzim
pencernaan dalam mencerna protein tersebut (Ophart, C.E., 2003).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pemanasan
akan membuat protein bahan terdenaturasi sehingga kemampuan mengikat airnya
menurun. Hal ini terjadi karena energi panas akan mengakibatkan terputusnya
interaksi non-kovalen yang ada pada struktur alami protein tapi tidak
memutuskan ikatan kovalennya yang berupa ikatan peptida. Proses ini biasanya
berlangsung pada kisaran suhu yang sempit (Ophart, C.E., 2003).</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Penyebab denaturasi protein :</span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Denaturasi
karena panas</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Denaturasi
karena asam dan basa</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Denaturasi
karena garam logam berat</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Denaturasi
karena alkohol</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Daftar Pustaka :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Stoker, H. Stephen. 2010. <em>General, Organic, And
Biological Chemistry </em>Fifth Edition Page 684 . Cengage Learning :
Belmont, CA USA</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Fessenden dan
Fessenden. 1989. <i>Kimia Organik Jilid 2</i>. Ed. 3. Jakarta: Erlangga. Hal.
395</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Frederick A B,
William H, Brown, dkk. 2010. <i>Introduction to general, organic, and
biochemistry</i>. Kanada : Nelson Education Ltd.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.chem-is-try.org/tanya_pakar/bagaimana-protein-terdenaturasi-dalam-susu-pasteurisasi-yang-dipanaskan/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.chem-is-try.org/tanya_pakar/bagaimana-protein-terdenaturasi-dalam-susu-pasteurisasi-yang-dipanaskan/</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">
diunduh pada 28/05/2013 jam 20.38</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-1137168042680080502013-05-02T00:54:00.002-07:002013-05-02T00:54:05.771-07:00AFGAN-JODOH PASTI BERTEMU<br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: verdana, 'Lucida Grande', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 1.5385em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LYNOKdEsXBM/UYIbP6aQspI/AAAAAAAAAB8/zRzUA3OCb4k/s1600/AFGAN.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="160" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LYNOKdEsXBM/UYIbP6aQspI/AAAAAAAAAB8/zRzUA3OCb4k/s320/AFGAN.jpg" width="320" /></a>Andai engkau tahu betapa ku mencinta<br />
Selalu menjadikanmu isi dalam doaku<br />
Ku tahu tak mudah menjadi yang kau pinta<br />
Ku pasrahkan hatiku, takdir kan menjawabnya</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: verdana, 'Lucida Grande', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 1.5385em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Jika aku bukan jalanmu<br />
Ku berhenti mengharapkanmu<br />
Jika aku memang tercipta untukmu<br />
Ku kan memilikimu, jodoh pasti bertemu</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: verdana, 'Lucida Grande', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 1.5385em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Andai engkau tahu betapa ku mencinta<br />
Selalu menjadikanmu isi dalam doaku<br />
Ku tahu tak mudah menjadi yang kau pinta<br />
Ku pasrahkan hatiku, takdir kan menjawabnya</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: verdana, 'Lucida Grande', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 1.5385em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Jika aku bukan jalanmu<br />
Ku berhenti mengharapkanmu<br />
Jika aku memang tercipta untukmu<br />
Ku kan memilikimu, jodoh pasti bertemu</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: verdana, 'Lucida Grande', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 1.5385em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Jika aku (jika aku) bukan jalanmu<br />
Ku berhenti mengharapkanmu<br />
Jika aku memang tercipta untukmu<br />
Ku kan memilikimu</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: verdana, 'Lucida Grande', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 1.5385em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
(jika aku bukan jalanmu)<br />
Ku berhenti mengharapkanmu<br />
Jika aku memang tercipta untukmu<br />
Ku kan memilikimu, jodoh pasti bertemu</div>
LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-53926778910795379322013-04-17T04:34:00.001-07:002013-04-17T04:34:57.212-07:00INSPIRING WOMEN<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-LSHJFga7y0U/UW6Ic-opLCI/AAAAAAAAABs/Hwp5p1cpXYc/s1600/ibu-ainun-habibie-copy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-LSHJFga7y0U/UW6Ic-opLCI/AAAAAAAAABs/Hwp5p1cpXYc/s320/ibu-ainun-habibie-copy.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-86512466457455785832013-04-09T05:34:00.001-07:002013-04-09T05:34:25.658-07:00function of microscope<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A microscope allows a user to look
at objects too small to be noticed by the unaided eye. It consists of several
parts.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Scope</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The scope is what people use to look
at the object. It acts as a magnifying glass to see the object itself.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Lens</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The lens focuses the scope onto the
object. Typically, the lens is interchangeable to allow more focused viewing.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Slide</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The slide is the panel in which the
object being observed sits on. The slide is typically made of glass.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Coarse Tuning Knob</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The coarse tuning knob allows the
user to move the scope up and down to help focus the item.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Fine Tuning Knob</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Like the coarse tuning knob, the
fine tuning knob moves the scope up and down but on a slower scale, allowing
for near-perfect focus.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Lamp</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The lamp allows the object to be easily
seen by the scope</span></div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>Eyepiece
Lenses</h2>
<div style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>At the top of the microscope is the eyepiece
lens. (Modern microscopes usually have two eyepiece lenses; some may have
viewing screens rather than eyepieces.) In a microscope with eyepieces, the
eyepiece lenses serve to produce part of the magnification. They are of a set
power (often 10X, magnifying to ten times the actual size of the viewing
object) and work in conjunction with the objective lenses.</div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
Objective Lenses</h2>
<div style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>At the microscope's midsection is what is called
the nosepiece. It is a sort of turret that houses several objective lenses. The
objective lenses are of differing magnifications and they work in conjunction
with the eyepiece lens or lenses to produce the desired magnification. Turning
the turret allows the user to select an objective lens to increase or decrease
magnification.</div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
Coarse Focus</h2>
<div style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>The coarse focus control changes the distance
from the subject being examined to the objective lens that's in use. This
allows the user to bring the view into focus. Typically the coarse focus
control moves the microscope's stage up or down to accomplish this.</div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
Fine Focus</h2>
<div style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>Once the material being viewed is brought into
general focus with the coarse focus, the fine focus allows for minute
adjustments. This function moves the stage in very slight increments to give
the user very fine control over what is in focus. Often the material being
examined is in a medium that, to the naked eye, might seem imperceptibly thin.
But under magnification it may cover a considerable span. Although the medium
may be in general focus, there may be objects of interest near the top of the
medium, in the middle or near the bottom. Using the coarse focus control to
adjust for this can be very frustrating since the coarse focus will often
overshoot the adjustment one way or the other.</div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
Stage</h2>
<div style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>Under the objective lens nosepiece is the more
or less flat surface of the mechanical stage. The stage is mechanical in the
sense that the focus knobs, when operated, move it up and down to achieve the
proper focus. Further, the stage on modern microscopes features mechanical
controls that allow the user to move the viewing medium---typically house on a
glass slide---left and right and forward and back. These controls are like the
fine focus in that they permit subtle movements so that the user may center an
object for viewing.</div>
<h2 style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
Light Source</h2>
<div style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>Beneath the stage is a light source
that---through a hole in the stage---illuminates the object being viewed. The
light is focused into a cone by a device called the substage condenser. And the
condenser itself has controls that allow for centering and focusing the light,
permitting adjustment to achieve optimal lighting on the subject.</div>
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<br /></div>
LIFE LOVE IN HEALTHYhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12771751361833956263noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2421298499402313252.post-65261964008124127982013-04-09T05:34:00.000-07:002013-04-09T05:34:06.037-07:00ACIDIMETRI<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">DASAR TEORI</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Asidimetri adalah analisis
(volumetri) yang menggunakan asam sebagai larutan standar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Alkalimetri adalah analisis
(volumetri) yang menggunakan alkali (basa) sebagai larutan standar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Analisis anorganik secara kualitatif
yaitu proses atau operasi analisis yang digunakan untuk mengetahui atau
mengidentifikasi penyusun-penyusun dari suatu zat dan pengembang-pengembang
metode-metode pemisahan masing-masing penyusun yang terdpat dalam suatu
campuran.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Analisis anorganik kuantitatif yaitu
proses analisis untuk menentukan atau mengidentifikasi banyaknya atau
perbandingan banyaknya tiap-tiap penyusun yang terdapat dalam suatu zat atau
senyawa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Secara garis besar analisis
kuantitatif dibagi menjadi :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Analisis secara volumetri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Anallisis secara gravimetri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Analisis secara volumetric adalah
analisis kimia kuantitatif yang dilakukan dengan menentukan banyaknya volume
suatu larutan yang konsentrasinya telah diketahui dengan teliti yang bereaksi
secara kwantitatif dengan larutan dari suatu zat yang akan ditentukan
konsentrasinya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Larutan yang konsentrasinya telah
diketahui dengan teliti, disebut <i>larutan standar</i> atau larutan lembaga,
dimana larutan ini setiap liternya mengandung sejumlah gram ekivalen tertentu.
Sedang banyaknya zat yang akan ditentukan dapat dihitung dari banyaknya volum
larutan standar dengan hukum ekivalen kimia biasa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Proses penambahan larutan standar
kedalam larutan yang akan ditentukan normalitasnya sampai terjadi reaksi yang
sempurna disebut <i>titrasi</i>. Sedangkan larutan yang akan ditentukan
normalitasnya disebut larutan yang dititrasi. Saat dimana reaksi sempurna
tercapai disebut saat <i>titik ekivalen</i> atau titik stokiometri biasanya
titik akhir titrasi disebut juga titik akhir teoritis. Titik akhir titrasi ini
dapat dilihat dengan adanya perubahan warna yang terdapat dalam larutan yang
dititrasi. Perubahan warna dalam larutan ini akan jelas bila dalam proses
titrasi ditmbahkan sedikmit indikator.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam analisis secara volumetric,
reaksi yang terjadi antara zat yang ditentukan dengan larutan standar harus
memenuhi syarat-syarat sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Reaksi harus sederhana sehingga mudah dituliskan dengan persamaan reaksi
kimianya. Zat yang akan ditentukan harus bereaksi secara kuantitatif dengan
larutan standar atau larutan pereaksi dalam perbandingan yang setara atau
secara stokiometri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Reaksi harus terjadi dengan cepat, apabila perlu untuk mempercepat reaksi dapat
ditambahkan suatu katalisator.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.
Pada saat tercapainya titik setara atau ekivalen, di dalam larutan harus
terjadi perubahan yang jelas, baik dalam sifat fisik maupun sifat kimianya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4.
Indikator yang digunakan harus memberikan ketentuan yang jelas saat terjadinya
titik akhir titrasi, misalnya perubahan warna atau terjadinya pembentukan
endapan. Apabila ternyata tidak ada indikator yang mampu menunjukkan saat
tercapainya titik ekivalen, amak proses ini dapat dikerjakan dengan cara
:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">a.
Titrasi secara potensiometri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">b.
Titrasi secara konduktometri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">c.
Titrasi secara amperometri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Reaksi dalam analisis volumetric
terbagi menjadi :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Reaksi-reaksi yang tidak mengakibatkan terjadinya perubahan valensi, sehingga
hanya terjadi penggabungan ion-ion saja.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Reaksi-reaksi yang mengakibatkan terjadinya perubahan valensi atau pepindahan
elektron yaitu reaksi-reaksi oksidasi-reduksi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Sehingga berdasarkan reaksi-reaksi
diatas, proses titrsi terbagi menjadi :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Titrasi netralisasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Titrasi pengendapan dan pembentukan kompleks.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.
Titrasi oksidasi-reduksi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Proses titrasi asidimetri dan
alkalimetri merupakan salah satu proses titrasi netralisasi. Asidimetri
merupakan suatu titrasi terhadap larutan basa bebas atau garam yang berasal
dari basa lemah dengan larutan standar asam. Dalam proses ini terjadi
penggabungan ion H<sup>+</sup> dengan ion OH<sup>-</sup> membentuk molekul air.
Sedangkan alkalimetri adalah suatu proses titrsi larutan asam bebas atau
larutan garam yang berasal dari asam lemah dengan larutan standar biasa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam perhitungan selanjutnya,
digunakan persamaan antara volume dan konsentrasi masing-masing zat yang
dititrasi dengan penetrasinya dan berlaku rumus sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">V<sub>1 </sub>X N<sub>1</sub>
= V<sub>2</sub> X N<sub>2</sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">V<sub>1 </sub>: Volume zat
penetrasi/standar (mL).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>1 </sub>: Normalitas zat
penetrasi/standar (gr ekivalen/L).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">V<sub>2 </sub>: Volume zat yang
dititrasi (mL).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>2 </sub>: Normalitas zat yang
diititrasi (mL)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">II. ALAT DAN BAHAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Alat :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 138.75pt;" valign="top" width="185">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1. Gelas arloji </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2. Sendok sungu</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3. Neraca analitik</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4. Erlenmeyer</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">5. Buret</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 135pt;" valign="top" width="180">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">6. Gelas
beker </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">7. Corong gelas</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">8. Pipet volum</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">9. Bulbpipet</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">10. Statif</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 135pt;" valign="top" width="180">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">11. Labu takar </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">12. Gelas ukur</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">13. Pipet tetes</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">14. Lemari asam</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Bahan :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 203.25pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1. Kristal
NaOH </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2. Kristal asam
oksalat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3. HCL pekat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 204.75pt;" valign="top" width="273">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4.
Aquades </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">5. Kristal
Natrium Borat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">6.
Indikator MO dan PP</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">III. LANGKAH KERJA</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Membuat larutan NaOH 0,1 N.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">a.
Kristal NaOH ditimbang sebanyak 1 gram.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">b.
Kristal NaOH tersebut dimasukan kedalam labu takar 250 mL, kemudian ditambahkan
aquades sampai tepat 250 mL.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">c.
Larutan NaOH disimpan dalam botol dan ditutup rapat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Penentuan normalitas larutan NaOH 0,1 N dengan asam oksalat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">a.
Kristal asam oksalat (H<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>.2H<sub>2</sub>O)
ditimbang sebanyak 0,63 gram.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">b.
Kristal asam oksalat tersebut dimasukan dalam labu takar 100 mL, kenmudian
ditambahkan aquades sampai tanda batas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">c.
Larutan asam oksalat tersebut diambil 25 mL dan dimasukkan ke dalam erlenmeyer
dan ditambahkan indikator PP.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">d.
Larutan dalam erlenmeyer tersebut dititrasi dengan larutan NaOH 0,1 N.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">e.
Titrasi diulangi 2-3 kali.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Membuat larutan HCl 0,1 N.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">a.
Larutan HCl 0,1 N akan dibuat sebanyak 100 mL dari HCl pekat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">b.
Larutan HCl pekat diambil sebanyak X mL (sesuai perhitungan)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">c.
Larutan HCl tersebut dimasukan dalm labu takar 100 mL kemudian ditambahkan aquades.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">d.
Larutan tersebut dikocok sampai homogen, kemudian ditanda bataskan dengan
aquades.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.
Penentuan normalitas HCl 0,1 N.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">a.
Larutan natrium borat 0,1 N dibuat sebanyak 100 mL.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">b.
Larutan HCl yang dibuat tadi, diambil 25 mL dan ditambahkan indikator MO 3
tetes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">c.
Larutan HCl tersebut dititrasi dengan larutan natrium borat yang dibuat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">d.
Titrasi diulangi 2-3 kali.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">e.
Normalitas HCl tersebut ditentukan dengan perhitungan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4.
Penentuan larutan sampel (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4 </sub>0.1 N).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">a.
Larutan sampel diambil beberapa mL.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">b.
Larutan sampel ditambah dengan indikator yang sesuai sebanyak 2-3 tetes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">c.
Larutan sampel dititrasi dengan larutan standar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">d.
Titrasi diulangi 2-3 kali</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">e.
Normalitas larutan sampel ditentukan dengan perhitungan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">IV. DATA PERCOBAAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Pembuatan larutan NaOH 0,1 N</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">BM
NaOH
: 40,0 gr/mol</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Massa
NaOH
: 1,009 gr</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol.
NaOH
: 250 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Standarisasi normalitas larutan NaOH dengan asam oksalat (H<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Massa
oksalat
: 0,635 gr</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">BM
oksalat
: 126,07 gr/mol</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol.
pengenceran
: 100 mL</span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">No.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 75pt;" valign="top" width="100">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. oksalat</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 63.75pt;" valign="top" width="85">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Indikator</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 78pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. NaOH</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Perubahan warna</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 75pt;" valign="top" width="100">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">25 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 63.75pt;" valign="top" width="85">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3 tetes PP</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 78pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">26,5 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Merah
tak berwarna</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 75pt;" valign="top" width="100">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">25 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 63.75pt;" valign="top" width="85">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3 tetes PP</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 78pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">26,4 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Merah
tak berwarna</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.
Pembuatan larutan HCl 0,1 N.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. HCl
diambil
: 0,830 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">BM HCl
pekat
: 36,5 gr/mol</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">BD HCl
pekat
: 1,190 gr/ml</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Prosen HCl
pekat
: 37 %</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol.
pengenceran
: 100 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4.
Standarisasi larutan HCl dengan larutan Na<sub>2</sub>B<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub>.10H<sub>2</sub>O.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Massa
borat
: 1,913 gr</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">BM
borat
: 381,37 gr/mol</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol.
pengenceran
: 100 mL</span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">No.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 60.75pt;" valign="top" width="81">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. HCl</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 84.75pt;" valign="top" width="113">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. Na<sub>2</sub>B<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 70.5pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Indikator</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Perubahan warna</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 60.75pt;" valign="top" width="81">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">25 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 84.75pt;" valign="top" width="113">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">18,5 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 70.5pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3 tetes MO</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Merah
orange</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 60.75pt;" valign="top" width="81">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">25 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 84.75pt;" valign="top" width="113">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">18,4 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 70.5pt;" valign="top" width="94">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3 tetes MO</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Merah
orange</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">5. Penentuan
larutan sampel.</span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">No.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 75pt;" valign="top" width="100">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>/
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">sampel</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 63.75pt;" width="85">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Indikator</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 78pt;" width="104">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. NaOH</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Perubahan warna</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 75pt;" valign="top" width="100">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">25 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 63.75pt;" valign="top" width="85">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3 tetes PP</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 78pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">21,2 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tak
berwarna
merah</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 28.5pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 75pt;" valign="top" width="100">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">25 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 63.75pt;" valign="top" width="85">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3 tetes PP</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 78pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">21,1 mL</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in; width: 144.75pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tak
berwarna merah</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Ket : Larutan H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4 </sub>5M
dibuat menjadi 0,1 N. Volume larutan H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4 </sub>5M<sub> </sub>yang
diambil 1 mL dan ditanda bataskan sampai 100 mL.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">I. PERHITUNGAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">a.
Standarisasi larutan NaOH dengan larutan asam oksalat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>as. oksalat</sub>
=(m.oksalatxekivalen)/(BMxvol)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">=(0,635 gr x 2)/(126,07 gr/molx 0,1
L)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">= 0,1007 N</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. as. oksalat rata-rata = 25 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. NaOH
rata-rata = 26,45 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>NaOH </sub>= ( V<sub>as.
oksalat </sub>X Nas. oksalat)/V<sub>NaOH</sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>NaOH </sub>= (25
mL X 0,1007 N)/26,45 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>NaOH</sub> = 0,0952 N</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">b.
Standarisasi larutan HCl dengan larutan borat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>borat</sub>
=(m.boratxekivalen)/(BMxvol)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">=(0,913 grx2)/(381,37gr/mol x 0,1 L)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">= 0,1003 N</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. borat rata-rata =
18,45 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. HCl
rata-rata = 25 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>HCl </sub>=
(V<sub>borat </sub>X N<sub>borat</sub> )/Vol HCl</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>HCl </sub>=
(18,45 mL X 0,1003 N)/25 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>HCl </sub>=
0,0740 N</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">e.
Penentuan normalitas larutan sampel (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. NaOH
rata-rata = 21.15 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vol. H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>
rata-rata = 25 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub>H2SO4 </sub>= (V<sub>NaOH
</sub>X N<sub>NaOH</sub> )/V<sub> H2SO4 </sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub> H2SO4 </sub>=
(21,15 mL X 0,1007 N)/25 mL</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">N<sub> H2SO4</sub> = 0,0805 N</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">V. PEMBAHASAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Titrasi asidi-alkalimetri merupakan
titrasi asam-basa dan termasuk dalam titrasi netralisasi (penetralan). Titrasi
asidimetri yaitu titrasi terhadap larutan basa bebas atau garam yang berasal
dari basa lemah dengan menggunakan larutan standar asam. Sedangkan, titrasi
alkalimetri yaitu titrasi terhadap larutan asam bebas atau garam yang berasal
dari asam lemah dengan menggunakan larutan standar basa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Asidimetri dan alkalimetri yang
dilakukan dalam percobaan ini melalui beberapa tahap. Untuk alkalimetri yaitu
pembuatan larutan NaOH dan larutan asam oksalat, kemudian standarisasi larutan
NaOH dengan larutan asam oksalat. Larutan asam oksalat dipakai sebagai larutan
standar karena memiliki kemurnian tinggi, tidak higroskopis dan memiliki berat
ekivalen yang cukup besar, sehinngga tergolong sebagai larutan standar primer.
Karena larutan NaOH termasuk basa kuat sedangkan larutan asam oksalat termasuk
asam lemah, Maka, pH saat terjadi titik ekivalen bersifat basa. Oleh karena itu
digunakan indikator fenolftalein, dengan trayek PH antara 8,3-10. Saat titrasi
larutan asam oksalat dengan larutan NaOH, warna larutan berubah dari merah
menjadi tak berwarna. Dari hasil perhitungan diperoleh bahwa normalitas larutan
NaOH sebelum distandarisasi yaitu 0,1009 N, namun setelah distandarisasi,
normalitas larutan NaOH yaitu 0,0952 N.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Untuk titrasi asidimetri,
tahap-tahap yang dilakukan yaitu pembuatan larutan HCl dan larutan borat,
kemudian standarisasi larutan HCl dengan larutan borat. Larutan borat dipakai
sebagai larutan standar karena memiliki beberapa keuntungan yaitu :</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Borat memiliki berat ekivalen yang tinggi ( 1 grek borat = 190,72).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Borat mudah dimurnikan dengan jalan rekristalisasi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.
Tidak perlu memanaskan sampai berat tetap (konsatan).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4.
Secara praktis, borat tidak higroskopis.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">5. Titik
akhir titrasi dapat terlihat jelas dengan indikator metil orange, karena
indikator ini tidak dipengaruhi oleh asam borak (H<sub>3</sub>BO<sub>3</sub>)
yang sangat lemah.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pada standarisasi larutan HCl dengan
larutan borat, karena larutan HCl termasuk asam kuat, sedangkan larutan borat
adalah garam dari basa lemah. Maka, pH saat titik ekivalen terjadi bersifat
asam. Oleh karena itu, indikatot yang dipakai adalah indikator metil orange
(MO), dengan trayek pH antara 3,1 – 4,4. Saat titrasi larutan HCl dengan
larutan borat, warna larutan berubah dari merah menjadi orange. Dari hasil
perhitungan diperoleh bahwa normalitas larutan HCl setalah distandarisasi
adalah 0,0740 N.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pada percobaan ini juga dilakukan
penentuan normalitas larutan sampel yaitu larutan H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>.
Untuk menentukan normalitas larutan H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, maka larutan H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>
dititrasi dengan larutan NaOH standar, dengan indikator PP. Saat titrasi
berlangsung, warna larutan berubah dari tak berwarna menjadi merah. Dari hasil
perhitunggan diperoleh bahwa normalitas larutan sampel (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>)
yaitu 0,0805 N. Dari seluruh perobaan yang dilakukan tersebut, dimungkinkan
terjadi beberapa kesalahan. Kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut mungkin lebih
disebabkan karena ketidak-telitian waktu pembuatan larutan dan menentukan titik
akhir titasi.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">VI. KESIMPULAN </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Normalitas larutan NaOH setelah distandarisasi adalah 0,0952 N.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Normalitas larutan HCl setelah distandarisasi adalah 0,0740 N.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.
Normalitas larutan sampel (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) adalah 0,0805 N.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">VII. DAFTAR PUSTAKA</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.
Mudjiran.<i>Diktat Analisis Kuantitatif Bagian Volumetri.</i>Yogyakarta:STTN-BATAN.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.
Siswantoro.dkk<i>.</i>2010.<i>Petunjuk Praktikum Kimia Analisis.</i>Yogyakarta:STTN-BATAN.</span></div>
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